This was a very rich century, marked by many changes and by a more consolidated Christianity, already approaching the time of the Crusades. The relationship between Christianity and Islam, which had been peaceful since the end of the previous century and into the beginning of this one, began to deteriorate. The peace that once prevailed between the two gradually gave way to growing intolerance.
This period is called by historians the Carolingian Renaissance, as a result of two very important dynasties that existed in the region that is now France. One of them was the Merovingian dynasty. Clovis, king of the Franks, a barbarian tribe, and grandson of Meroveu, converted to Christianity. After the conversion of the Franks, other barbarian peoples followed the same path. Thus, Clovis had crucial importance for the expansion of Christianity. After their conversion, the barbarian peoples formed the countries that today make up the European continent.
The second dynasty, the Carolingian, began with Charles Martel, who by winning two battles at Tours and Poitiers in the previous century practically expelled the Muslims from the region that is now France. The dynasty continued with his son Pepin the Short and finally with Pepin’s son, Charlemagne the Great, who became emperor, anointed by the pope. This period can be considered a pre Carolingian Renaissance.
Many Christians believe that Christian religious intolerance is represented mainly by the Inquisition. However, many expressions of Christian intolerance occurred very early, during the early Middle Ages. One of the fires that caused the destruction of the Library of Alexandria was set by Christians. The idea of erasing classical Greek philosophical thought from the world was strongly pursued, because it was considered important that only religious truth be accepted. As a result, Christianity became a religion that did not accept other ideas, and this would later serve as the foundation for what would happen during the Crusades in the eleventh century.
It is worth remembering that in the year 529 the Benedictines closed Plato’s Academy under the motto: If we have religion, we do not need philosophy. This marked the beginning of what is now called the Dark Ages, due to the distancing from the classical period. Even so, many enlightened individuals appeared throughout the world. Humanity was not abandoned, even in the most difficult times, because guidance was always present.
At the beginning of this century, Harun al Rashid, the fifth caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, transferred the center of the caliphate from Syria to the city of Baghdad, in present day Iraq. With the contemporaries Harun al Rashid and Charlemagne, the golden age of Islam began, as well as the Carolingian Renaissance. It was called a renaissance because Charlemagne invested in the arts, in the beautification of cities, and recovered part of classical culture, including texts by Homer and Plato, texts that the Church had previously rejected, claiming that the Gospels were sufficient. There was peace between them, as they were friends who exchanged gifts even though they never met. However, this period of tolerance was short lived.
A very interesting phenomenon can be observed. Christians came from a Jewish root, later mixed with the Roman Empire, adopting several rites, ceremonies, and the use of images in worship. Later they mixed with the barbarian peoples, until reaching a time when they did not mix with Muslims. From the end of the eighth century onward, conflicts over territory and dominance began, resulting in an armed Christianity. However, there was a truce between Charlemagne and Harun al Rashid because they respected one another, even without meeting, allowing a period of religious tolerance. Muslims could visit Europe and Christians could visit the Holy Land. Historians call this moment a golden period. Unfortunately, human nature was and still is inclined toward conflict and rivalry, which caused this friendship to last only a short time.
During this golden period, the Bayt al Hikmah, the House of Wisdom, stood out in Baghdad. It was founded by the fifth Abbasid caliph, Harun al Rashid. Not being a fundamentalist and appreciating art and culture, he sought to bring into the House of Wisdom the best knowledge of other civilizations, such as the ancient wisdom of India. From Europe he recovered texts by Aristotle, Plato, and Plotinus. It became a center of science, art, and technology. Records indicate that people traveled there to attend classes and learn. Among the notable scholars were Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi and Ibn Sina, known to Christians as Avicenna, a great polymath who excelled particularly in medicine. At this time, Islam was at its height when compared to Christianity.
Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi had a brilliant idea. The Romans were very skilled in law but not in mathematics, as they used small stones to perform calculations. From this practice comes the Latin word calculus. Al Khwarizmi created a symbol for each number, something no one had done before. Units were placed under units and tens under tens, and numbers could be added quickly without counting stones. The numerals were called Hindu Arabic because he created the numbers from one to nine, while zero was created in India to represent nothing.
This transformed mathematics in the world. Al Khwarizmi is considered the father of algebra and arithmetic for developing addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The words algorithm and algebra reflect his influence, and Arabic numerals are still used today. Many other advances were made during this period, including the discovery of anesthetics and the creation of the first institutions resembling modern hospitals, where a sick person could enter and leave healed. The name House of Wisdom truly reflected a golden age.
Charlemagne died, and his successor Louis I became known as Louis the Pious. His reign, however, was ineffective, as he failed to maintain control. Disputes, wars, and Muslim pressure returned. After his death, the Holy Roman Frankish Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. One of his sons, Charles II, became king of the Franks in the region that would later become France. Louis the German ruled the territory that would become Germany. Lothair took responsibility for the region that would become Italy and nearby areas. Thus, the nations that form Europe began to take shape.
Viking invasions occurred during this century. Vikings were nearly unstoppable warriors who came from the northern seas. Their ships allowed them to navigate both seas and rivers, capturing cities along the way, especially in the region that is now Great Britain. Interestingly, they also became Christians. A king named Alfred of Wessex learned to fight them and defeated them. After the victory, Alfred gave them two choices: leave or convert to Christianity. They chose conversion. As a result, an amalgamation occurred, and today the people of Great Britain carry Anglo, Saxon, Viking, and Christian heritage.
Two Christian missionaries considered saints, Cyril and Methodius, were born in Thessaloniki, Greece, and are highlights of this century. They preached Christianity to the Slavic peoples, including Russians, Ukrainians, and other Eastern European groups. They also created an alphabet called Glagolitic to communicate with these peoples. This alphabet later evolved into the Cyrillic alphabet, which is still used today in Russia and Ukraine.
In defense of the so called barbarians, it must be said that they were not necessarily barbaric. They were called barbarians because they did not receive a Hellenistic education. These were peoples that Alexander the Great failed to conquer in the fourth century before Christ. He taught Greek philosophy and knowledge to the peoples he conquered. Those who were not influenced by Greek thought were later labeled barbarians. While some of these peoples were violent, many were not.
Another event recorded in this century is more tradition than proven history. According to legend, there may have been a female pope named Joan or John Angelicus. She would have disguised herself as a man to assume the papacy during the Middle Ages, rising through the Church hierarchy. She was allegedly exposed during a procession when she gave birth. Some accounts say she was lynched, while others claim she was sent to a convent. This papacy is said to have occurred in 855, for a short period of about one year, between the papacies of Leo IV and Benedict III. Modern scholars view this story as a critique of the Church’s exclusion of women from liturgy. Whether legend or not, repeated ideas often gain symbolic power.
Another development of this century was the emergence of the dogma of transubstantiation. During Mass, the host represents the body of Christ and the wine represents his blood, recalling the Last Supper. Through this ritual, the substance of Christ is believed to be present in the Eucharist, allowing believers to remain in communion with Jesus through repeated participation.
In this century, the prayers of the Rosary began to develop in devotion to Mary of Nazareth. It originally consisted of five Our Fathers and fifty Hail Marys, forming what is called the Rosary. The mysteries were three: joyful, sorrowful, and glorious, each recalling five important moments in the life of Jesus or Mary. In 2002, Pope John Paul II added a fourth set, the luminous mysteries.
It is worth recalling the beginning of this century, when barbarians and Vikings made peace and when peace also prevailed between Christians and Muslims. It was truly a golden period.